病因学
吸烟是 COPD 的主要危险因素。[1]Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD). Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: 2024 report. 2024 [internet publication].https://goldcopd.org/2024-gold-report/[12]Li X, Cao X, Guo M, et al. Trends and risk factors of mortality and disability adjusted life years for chronic respiratory diseases from 1990 to 2017: systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017. BMJ. 2020 Feb 19;368:m234. [Erratum in: BMJ. 2020 Aug 6;370:m3150.]https://www.bmj.com/content/368/bmj.m234http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32075787?tool=bestpractice.com 在高收入国家,超过 70% 的 COPD 病例由吸烟引起,而在中低收入国家,30%-40% 的病例由吸烟引起。[22]World Health Organization. Smoking is the leading cause of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Nov 2023 [internet publication].https://www.who.int/news/item/15-11-2023-smoking-is-the-leading-cause-of-chronic-obstructive-pulmonary-disease 吸烟会导致炎症反应、纤毛功能障碍和氧化损伤,从而引起 COPD。[23]Lugg ST, Scott A, Parekh D, et al. Cigarette smoke exposure and alveolar macrophages: mechanisms for lung disease. Thorax. 2022 Jan;77(1):94-101.https://www.doi.org/10.1136/thoraxjnl-2020-216296http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33986144?tool=bestpractice.com
空气污染、室内生物质燃料燃烧,以及粉尘职业暴露、化学试剂和烟雾为其他病因。[24]Park J, Kim HJ, Lee CH, et al. Impact of long-term exposure to ambient air pollution on the incidence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Environ Res. 2021 Mar;194:110703.https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0013935120316029http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33417909?tool=bestpractice.com[25]Zhu RX, Nie XH, Chen YH, et al. Relationship between particulate matter (PM2.5) and hospitalizations and mortality of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients: a meta-analysis. Am J Med Sci. 2020 Jun;359(6):354-64.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32498942?tool=bestpractice.com[26]Peng C, Yan Y, Li Z, et al. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease caused by inhalation of dust: a meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore). 2020 Aug 21;99(34):e21908.https://journals.lww.com/md-journal/fulltext/2020/08210/chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_disease_caused_by.110.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32846856?tool=bestpractice.com 吸入高剂量的杀虫剂和高浓度的颗粒物都与 COPD 发病率的增加相关。[27]Faruque MO, Boezen HM, Kromhout H, et al. Airborne occupational exposures and the risk of developing respiratory symptoms and airway obstruction in the Lifelines Cohort Study. Thorax. 2021 Mar 2;76(8):790-7.https://thorax.bmj.com/content/76/8/790http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33653936?tool=bestpractice.com[28]Lytras T, Kogevinas M, Kromhout H, et al. Occupational exposures and 20-year incidence of COPD: the European Community Respiratory Health Survey. Thorax. 2018 Nov;73(11):1008-15.https://thorax.bmj.com/content/73/11/1008http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29574416?tool=bestpractice.com[29]Shin S, Bai L, Burnett RT, et al. Air pollution as a risk factor for incident chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma. A 15-year population-based cohort study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2021 May 1;203(9):1138-48.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33147059?tool=bestpractice.com[30]Liu S, Lim YH, Pedersen M, et al. Long-term air pollution and road traffic noise exposure and COPD: the Danish Nurse Cohort. Eur Respir J. 2021 Dec 2;58(6):2004594.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33986028?tool=bestpractice.com 氧化应激、蛋白酶与抗蛋白酶之间失衡也是 COPD 发病机制的重要因素,尤其是 α-1 抗胰蛋白酶缺乏患者。[31]Eapen MS, Sohal SS. Update on the pathogenesis of COPD. N Engl J Med. 2019 Dec 19;381(25):2483-4.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31851815?tool=bestpractice.com 对最佳肺生长和肺功能构成影响的过程,可使 COPD 罹患风险升高。[32]Lange P, Celli B, Agustí A, et al. Lung-function trajectories leading to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N Engl J Med. 2015 Jul 9;373(2):111-22.https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa1411532http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26154786?tool=bestpractice.com 这些过程可以追溯至胎儿期、出生、儿童期和青春期。例如,出生体重与成年期 FEV₁ 呈正相关。对于成年期肺功能预测,儿童期的不利因素可能与大量吸烟同等重要。[33]Lawlor DA, Ebrahim S, Davey Smith G. Association of birth weight with adult lung function: findings from the British Women's Heart and Health Study and a meta-analysis. Thorax. 2005 Oct;60(10):851-8.https://thorax.bmj.com/content/60/10/851http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16055617?tool=bestpractice.com[34]Balte P, Karmaus W, Roberts G, et al. Relationship between birth weight, maternal smoking during pregnancy and childhood and adolescent lung function: a path analysis. Respir Med. 2016 Dec;121:13-20.https://www.resmedjournal.com/article/S0954-6111(16)30263-3/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27888986?tool=bestpractice.com
病理生理学
COPD 的特征是影响中央和外周气道、肺实质和肺泡以及肺血管的慢性炎症。反复损伤和修复导致结构和生理改变。肺部炎症和结构改变随疾病加重而增加,戒烟后持续存在。[31]Eapen MS, Sohal SS. Update on the pathogenesis of COPD. N Engl J Med. 2019 Dec 19;381(25):2483-4.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31851815?tool=bestpractice.com
这些改变主要包括气道狭窄和重塑、杯状细胞数量增多、中央气道黏液分泌腺增大、肺泡消失,以及最终血管床改变导致肺动脉高压。
有证据显示宿主对吸入性刺激物的反应可产生炎症反应,导致气道、肺泡和肺血管发生变化。激活的巨噬细胞、中性粒细胞和白细胞是这一过程的重要细胞。氧化应激和蛋白酶过多会加剧慢性炎症的影响。 气道重塑会使管径小于 2 mm 气道的上皮、黏膜固有层、平滑肌和外膜增厚,导致通畅的终末和过渡细支气管进行性消失。[31]Eapen MS, Sohal SS. Update on the pathogenesis of COPD. N Engl J Med. 2019 Dec 19;381(25):2483-4.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31851815?tool=bestpractice.com 越来越多证据表明嗜酸性粒细胞(一种通常与过敏性疾病有关的白细胞)参与了 COPD 炎症级联反应。[35]David B, Bafadhel M, Koenderman L, et al. Eosinophilic inflammation in COPD: from an inflammatory marker to a treatable trait. Thorax. 2021 Feb;76(2):188-95.https://thorax.bmj.com/content/76/2/188http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33122447?tool=bestpractice.com
弹性蛋白分解以及随后的肺泡完整性丧失会导致肺气肿。[36]Gharib SA, Manicone AM, Parks WC. Matrix metalloproteinases in emphysema. Matrix Biol. 2018 Nov;73:34-51.https://www.doi.org/10.1016/j.matbio.2018.01.018http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29406250?tool=bestpractice.com[37]Mecham RP. Elastin in lung development and disease pathogenesis. Matrix Biol. 2018 Nov;73:6-20.https://www.doi.org/10.1016/j.matbio.2018.01.005http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29331337?tool=bestpractice.com 纤毛功能障碍以及杯状细胞变大、数量增加导致黏液过度分泌。
COPD 的生理学定义是气道阻力增加。弹性回缩力下降、肺实质纤维化改变以及气道腔被分泌物阻塞均会促使气道阻力增加。呼气气流受限促进过度充气的发生。过度充气和肺实质破坏使 COPD 患者更容易缺氧,在活动时尤其明显。进行性缺氧导致血管平滑肌增厚,继而出现肺动脉高压,肺动脉高压这种晚期变化提示预后不良。[1]Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD). Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: 2024 report. 2024 [internet publication].https://goldcopd.org/2024-gold-report/[38]Kovacs G, Avian A, Bachmaier G, et al. Severe pulmonary hypertension in COPD: impact on survival and diagnostic approach. Chest. 2022 Jul;162(1):202-12.https://www.doi.org/10.1016/j.chest.2022.01.031http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35092746?tool=bestpractice.com 随着疾病进展,气体输送减少也可能导致高碳酸血症。
全身性炎症介质可能促发骨骼肌萎缩或恶病质,并引发或加重心脏、代谢和骨骼合并症。[1]Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD). Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: 2024 report. 2024 [internet publication].https://goldcopd.org/2024-gold-report/[5]Maltais F, Decramer M, Casaburi R, et al; ATS/ERS Ad Hoc Committee on Limb Muscle Dysfunction in COPD. An official American Thoracic Society/European Respiratory Society statement: update on limb muscle dysfunction in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2014 May 1;189(9):e15-62.https://www.atsjournals.org/doi/10.1164/rccm.201402-0373SThttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24787074?tool=bestpractice.com
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