支持患者(和其家人或照护者,视情况而定)加强了解营养以及营养对糖尿病的影响。[34]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes (type 1 and type 2) in children and young people: diagnosis and management. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng18[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17
没有适合所有糖尿病患者的标准化饮食建议。[45]American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care in diabetes - 2021. Diabetes Care. 2021;44(suppl 1):S1-S232.https://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/44/Supplement_1
个体化营养建议,应当基于个人和文化偏好、健康素养和计算能力、是否能获得健康食物以及做出行为改变的意愿和能力。还应当关注改变的障碍因素。
应考虑以下因素,对营养建议进行调整:超重和肥胖、体重不足、进食障碍、高血压和肾衰竭。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17
所有糖尿病患者应当接受个体化的医学营养学治疗,最好是由有针对糖尿病患者这方面治疗经验的注册营养师提供。[55]Evert AB, Dennison M, Gardner CD, et al. Nutrition therapy for adults with diabetes or prediabetes: a consensus report. Diabetes Care. 2019 May;42(5):731-54.https://www.doi.org/10.2337/dci19-0014http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31000505?tool=bestpractice.com
计算碳水化合物(根据胰岛素 : 碳水化合物比率调整胰岛素剂量)或者保持一致的碳水化合物摄入量和摄入时间,可能会改善血糖控制。英国国家卫生与临床优化研究所(National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, NICE)建议采用低血糖指数饮食来改善儿童和青少年的血糖控制,但不建议成人采用这种方法。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17[34]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes (type 1 and type 2) in children and young people: diagnosis and management. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng18 速效胰岛素的使用令把握进食时间不再那么重要,但规律进食仍很重要。
鼓励患者定期进行体力活动。
1 型糖尿病患者可以安全地运动和管理血糖水平。[39]Chiang JL, Maahs DM, Garvey KC, et al. Type 1 diabetes in children and adolescents: a position statement by the American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care. 2018 Aug 9;41(9):2026-44.http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/41/9/2026.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30093549?tool=bestpractice.com[56]Riddell MC, Gallen IW, Smart CE, et al. Exercise management in type 1 diabetes: a consensus statement. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2017 May;5(5):377-90.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28126459?tool=bestpractice.com[57]Moser O, Riddell MC, Eckstein ML, et al. Glucose management for exercise using continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) and intermittently scanned CGM (isCGM) systems in type 1 diabetes: position statement of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD) and of the International Society for Pediatric and Adolescent Diabetes (ISPAD) endorsed by JDRF and supported by the American Diabetes Association (ADA). Diabetologia. 2020 Dec;63(12):2501-20.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00125-020-05263-9http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33047169?tool=bestpractice.com 请注意,在实践中,许多患者发现运动具有挑战性,尤其是在急性运动增加血糖异常风险的情况下。[57]Moser O, Riddell MC, Eckstein ML, et al. Glucose management for exercise using continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) and intermittently scanned CGM (isCGM) systems in type 1 diabetes: position statement of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD) and of the International Society for Pediatric and Adolescent Diabetes (ISPAD) endorsed by JDRF and supported by the American Diabetes Association (ADA). Diabetologia. 2020 Dec;63(12):2501-20.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00125-020-05263-9http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33047169?tool=bestpractice.com 因此,患者需要获得教育者的持续支持、教育和投入。
对运动前碳水化合物摄入量和胰岛素剂量的有效调整可避免锻炼和运动时发生低血糖。[58]Aronson R, Brown RE, Li A, et al. Optimal insulin correction factor in post-high-intensity exercise hyperglycemia in adults with type 1 diabetes: the FIT Study. Diabetes Care. 2018 Nov 19;42(1):10-6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30455336?tool=bestpractice.com
低血糖可以发生在运动后长达 24 小时内,并且可能需要在计划运动的当日减少胰岛素剂量。如果患者血糖 < 5.0 mmol/L(< 90 mg/dL),应在开始运动前摄入一些提供碳水化合物的零食(10–20 g)。[57]Moser O, Riddell MC, Eckstein ML, et al. Glucose management for exercise using continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) and intermittently scanned CGM (isCGM) systems in type 1 diabetes: position statement of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD) and of the International Society for Pediatric and Adolescent Diabetes (ISPAD) endorsed by JDRF and supported by the American Diabetes Association (ADA). Diabetologia. 2020 Dec;63(12):2501-20.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00125-020-05263-9http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33047169?tool=bestpractice.com
请谨记,由于心理和社会挑战,糖尿病患者可能难以有效管理其糖尿病;这些患者将需要综合的多学科方法,需要有心理学家、精神科医生和支持工作者参与。[83]Doherty AM, Gayle C, Morgan-Jones R, et al. Improving quality of diabetes care by integrating psychological and social care for poorly controlled diabetes: 3 Dimensions of Care for Diabetes. Int J Psychiatry Med. 2016;51(1):3-15.https://www.doi.org/10.1177/0091217415621040http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26681232?tool=bestpractice.com特别要考虑进食障碍以及对体形和体重的担忧是否会影响患者如何使用胰岛素。
建议儿童(和/或其家人或照护者)每天常规进行至少 5 次毛细血管血糖检测。[34]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes (type 1 and type 2) in children and young people: diagnosis and management. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng18为了支持安全运动以及在间发疾病期间,需要更频繁地进行检测。鼓励任何患有 1 型糖尿病的儿童或青少年携带或佩戴可提醒人们注意其诊断的物品(如手镯)。[34]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes (type 1 and type 2) in children and young people: diagnosis and management. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng18
支持患有 1 型糖尿病的成人每天至少检测 4 次血糖。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17如果出现以下情况,监测频率可增加至高达每天 10 次。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17
请记住,以下情况下,可能需要进行额外检测(每天 10 次以上):[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17
在实践中,多数患有 1 型糖尿病的成人每天可能需检查 4-10 次血糖。
告知患者,如果少吃一餐、注射太多胰岛素、运动或者生病,可能会发生低血糖。酒精和运动可导致迟发性低血糖,这种低血糖甚至可能在 24 小时后出现。
低血糖的症状包括感到非常饥饿、紧张、颤抖、出汗、头晕或意识模糊。
为了升高血糖,患者可以服用葡萄糖片或凝胶,或者喝果汁,具体取决于血糖下降的程度。
如果发生低血糖,患者应及时就医,以对药物治疗进行调整。
确保患者(和/或其家人/照护者,视情况而定)备有胰高血糖素急救盒,以备发生严重低血糖时或者在患者无法进食或饮水时使用。
将重度低血糖定义为导致认知障碍且需要他人协助才能恢复的低血糖水平。
如果患者需禁食(例如,为进行医学检查),建议患者与医生讨论调整其胰岛素需求量。
确保患者知晓高血糖的症状,包括视物模糊、口渴、尿频或乏力等,如果出现这些症状,应立即就医。如果出现发热、咳嗽、排尿困难或足部创伤,应寻求医疗照护。
给予患者清晰的个体化口头和书面建议(“病期规则”),说明如何在间发疾病期间调整病情管理。[139][140] 该疾病计划应包括:
监测血糖
监测和解读血酮(请参阅下文)
调整其胰岛素治疗方案
调整进食和饮水量
如何寻求进一步建议。
向患有 1 型糖尿病的儿童和青少年提供血酮检测条和测量仪。建议患者(和/或其家人或照护者)在其生病或有高血糖时检测是否存在酮血症。[34]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes (type 1 and type 2) in children and young people: diagnosis and management. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng18
考虑将酮体监测(血液或尿液)纳入成人的“病期规则”,以促进对高血糖发作的自我管理。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17
如果患者吸烟,提供戒烟和使用戒烟服务的建议。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17 如果患者不吸烟,建议其永远不要开始吸烟。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17
对于 1 型糖尿病成人患者,建议血压管理水平为 135/85 mmHg。如果患者有白蛋白尿或者两种或两种以上代谢综合征特征,建议血压管理水平为 130/80 mmHg。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17
支持患者使用让其能够通过远程支持来管理自身疾病(作为对其常规就诊的补充)的技术。