有关大流行期间诊断和管理共存疾病的最新信息,请参阅专题“COVID-19 共存疾病管理”。
在短期内,就 1 型糖尿病管理而言,胰岛素是一种挽救生命的治疗,因为它能预防糖尿病酮症酸中毒这一可能的致死性疾病。请参阅糖尿病酮症酸中毒专题。
胰岛素治疗的长期目标是尽可能维持血糖水平接近正常,以预防糖尿病的慢性并发症。通常根据糖化血红蛋白(HbA1c)的控制目标确定治疗的积极性,而这一目标因人而异。
英国国家卫生与临床优化研究所(National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, NICE)建议 HbA1c 目标水平为 48 mmol/mol(6.5%)或更低。[34]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes (type 1 and type 2) in children and young people: diagnosis and management. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng18[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17
对于一些患者群体,包括幼儿和老年人群,以及有严重低血糖病史、预期寿命有限、有晚期微血管或大血管并发症或者有合并症的患者,这一目标可适当放宽。[45]American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care in diabetes - 2021. Diabetes Care. 2021;44(suppl 1):S1-S232.https://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/44/Supplement_1
如果患者为儿童或青少年,应意识到严苛的目标可能会导致苦恼情绪和/或与家人或照护者发生冲突,双方可能需要达成妥协。[34]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes (type 1 and type 2) in children and young people: diagnosis and management. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng18
如果患者为成人,应考虑到患者日常活动、意愿、并发症可能性、合并症、职业和低血糖病史等因素,与其商定个体化 HbA1c 目标。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17
应至少按以下频率测定 HbA1c 水平:
对于 18 岁以下儿童和青少年患者,每 3 个月一次[34]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes (type 1 and type 2) in children and young people: diagnosis and management. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng18
对于成人患者,每 3-6 个月一次。[34]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes (type 1 and type 2) in children and young people: diagnosis and management. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng18
对于 1 型糖尿病患者,为达到最佳血糖水平,需要关注饮食、运动和胰岛素治疗。需协调此三要素,以尽量减少症状及并发症风险。自我监测血糖(self-monitoring of blood glucose, SMBG)是自我照护的核心组成部分。
儿童血糖监测
建议儿童(和/或其家人或照护者)每天常规进行至少 5 次毛细血管血糖检测。[34]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes (type 1 and type 2) in children and young people: diagnosis and management. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng18
对于 18 岁以下儿童和青少年患者,应参照以下目标:[34]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes (type 1 and type 2) in children and young people: diagnosis and management. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng18
睡醒时:空腹血糖水平 4–7 mmol/L(72–126 mg/dL)
餐前(在一天中的其他时间):血糖水平 4–7 mmol/L(72–126 mg/dL)
餐后:血糖水平 5–9 mmol/L(90–162 mg/dL)
驾驶时:血糖水平至少 5 mmol/L (90 mg/dL)。[48]Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency. Guidance: Information for drivers with diabetes. March 2020 [internet publication].https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/information-for-drivers-with-diabetes
对于存在以下任何一种情况的儿童和青少年患者,需提供带警报的持续实时动态血糖监测(continuous glucose monitoring, CGM)系统:[34]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes (type 1 and type 2) in children and young people: diagnosis and management. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng18
对于以下人群,考虑进行持续实时 CGM:[34]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes (type 1 and type 2) in children and young people: diagnosis and management. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng18
非妊娠成人的血糖监测
在诊断和开始胰岛素治疗时,讲授患者自我监测技能。每年至少与患者一起回顾一次这些技能。具体包括以下方面的信息:[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17
支持患有 1 型糖尿病的成人每天至少检测 4 次血糖。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17如果出现以下情况,监测频率可增加至高达每天 10 次。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17
请记住,以下情况下,可能需要进行额外检测(每天 10 次以上):[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17
在实践中,多数患有 1 型糖尿病的成人每天可能需检查 4-10 次血糖。
建议患有 1 型糖尿病的成人参照以下目标:[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17
醒来时:空腹血糖水平 5-7 mmol/L(90-126 mg/dL)
餐前(在一天中的其他时间):血糖水平 4–7 mmol/L(72–126 mg/dL)
餐后:进餐后至少 90 分钟,血糖水平 5–9 mmol/L(90–162 mg/dL)
睡前:个体化血糖水平(考虑最后一餐的时间及其相关胰岛素剂量,与建议的睡醒时空腹血糖水平一致)。
如果患者需要驾驶,确保其了解当地关于血糖水平的建议。在英国,驾驶员和车辆许可发放机构(Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency, DVLA)建议驾驶前达到至少 5 mmol/L(90 mg/dL)的目标水平。[48]Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency. Guidance: Information for drivers with diabetes. March 2020 [internet publication].https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/information-for-drivers-with-diabetes
一些患有 1 型糖尿病的成人可能需要通过实时动态血糖监测系统(continuous glucose monitoring, CGM)进行血糖测量。患者定期佩戴的实时 CGM 可能有助于改善血糖水平。[49]Beck RW, Riddlesworth T, Ruedy K, et al; DIAMOND Study Group. Effect of continuous glucose monitoring on glycemic control in adults with type 1 diabetes using insulin injections: the DIAMOND randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2017 Jan 24;317(4):371-8.https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2598770http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28118453?tool=bestpractice.com[50]Benkhadra K, Alahdab F, Tamhane S, et al. Real-time continuous glucose monitoring in type 1 diabetes: a systematic review and individual patient data meta-analysis. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2017 Mar;86(3):354-60.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27978595?tool=bestpractice.com[51]Lind M, Polonsky W, Hirsch IB, et al. Continuous glucose monitoring vs conventional therapy for glycemic control in adults with type 1 diabetes treated with multiple daily insulin injections: the GOLD randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2017 Jan 24;317(4):379-87.https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2598771http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28118454?tool=bestpractice.com 当血糖值处于较低范围时,CGM 的血糖传感器不可靠;因此无法排除监测指尖血糖的需求。这些系统正在开发中。[52]Petrie JR, Peters AL, Bergenstal RM, et al. Improving the clinical value and utility of CGM systems: issues and recommendations: a joint statement of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes and the American Diabetes Association Diabetes Technology Working Group. Diabetes Care. 2017 Dec;40(12):1614-21.http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/40/12/1614.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29070577?tool=bestpractice.com CGM 不如传统毛细血管血糖监测方法准确。但是,它能提供关于血糖趋势的信息,还能发出警示提醒患者即将发生低血糖或高血糖,从而减少低血糖发作。[53]Ly TT, Nicholas JA, Retterath A, et al. Effect of sensor-augmented insulin pump therapy and automated insulin suspension vs standard insulin pump therapy on hypoglycemia in patients with type 1 diabetes: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2013 Sep 25;310(12):1240-7.http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/1741822http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24065010?tool=bestpractice.com[54]Hirsch IB. Clinical review: realistic expectations and practical use of continuous glucose monitoring for the endocrinologist. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009 Jul;94(7):2232-8.http://press.endocrine.org/doi/full/10.1210/jc.2008-2625http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19383778?tool=bestpractice.com
英国国家卫生与临床优化研究所(National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, NICE)建议,如果在最优化胰岛素治疗和进行传统自我血糖监测的情况下,仍出现以下情况,可以考虑进行实时 CGM(前提是 CGM 可由在 CGM 使用方面具备专业知识的中心监督,患者承诺至少能有 70% 的时间使用 CGM,并且能根据需要对 CGM 进行校准)。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17
NICE 正在重审该指导,旨在扩展 CGM 的资格标准,以包括血糖控制不理想的患者。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17
“病期规则”
给予患者清晰的个体化口头和书面建议(“病期规则”),说明如何在间发疾病期间调整病情管理。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17[34]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes (type 1 and type 2) in children and young people: diagnosis and management. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng18 该疾病计划应包括:
监测血糖
监测和解读血酮(请参阅下文)
调整其胰岛素治疗方案
调整进食和饮水量
如何寻求进一步建议。
酮体监测
酮体监测是管理的另一个方面。胰岛素不足可导致酮体水平升高,如果不加以治疗,可导致进行性脱水和糖尿病酮症酸中毒(diabetic ketoacidosis, DKA)。DKA 是一种严重的致死性并发症。请参阅糖尿病酮症酸中毒专题。
如果患者生病(例如流感或泌尿道感染)或错过了一些胰岛素剂量,则 DKA 发生风险增加。
向患有 1 型糖尿病的儿童和青少年提供血酮检测条和测量仪。建议患者(和/或其家人或照护者)在其生病或有高血糖时检测是否存在酮血症。[34]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes (type 1 and type 2) in children and young people: diagnosis and management. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng18
考虑将酮体监测(血液或尿液)纳入成人的“病期规则”,以促进对高血糖发作的自我管理。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17
饮食和运动
支持患者(和其家人或照护者,视情况而定)加强了解营养以及营养对糖尿病的影响。[34]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes (type 1 and type 2) in children and young people: diagnosis and management. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng18[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17
没有适合所有糖尿病患者的标准化饮食建议。[45]American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care in diabetes - 2021. Diabetes Care. 2021;44(suppl 1):S1-S232.https://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/44/Supplement_1
个体化营养建议,应当基于个人和文化偏好、健康素养和计算能力、是否能获得健康食物以及做出行为改变的意愿和能力。还应当关注改变的障碍因素。
应考虑以下因素,对营养建议进行调整:超重和肥胖、体重不足、进食障碍、高血压和肾衰竭。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17
所有糖尿病患者应当接受个体化的医学营养学治疗,最好是由有针对糖尿病患者这方面治疗经验的注册营养师提供。[55]Evert AB, Dennison M, Gardner CD, et al. Nutrition therapy for adults with diabetes or prediabetes: a consensus report. Diabetes Care. 2019 May;42(5):731-54.https://www.doi.org/10.2337/dci19-0014http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31000505?tool=bestpractice.com
计算碳水化合物(根据胰岛素 : 碳水化合物比率调整胰岛素剂量)或者保持一致的碳水化合物摄入量和摄入时间,可能会改善血糖控制。英国国家卫生与临床优化研究所(National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, NICE)建议采用低血糖指数饮食来改善儿童和青少年的血糖控制,但不建议成人采用这种方法。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17[34]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes (type 1 and type 2) in children and young people: diagnosis and management. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng18 速效胰岛素的使用令把握进食时间不再那么重要,但规律进食仍很重要。
鼓励患者定期进行体力活动。
1 型糖尿病患者可以安全地运动和管理血糖水平。[39]Chiang JL, Maahs DM, Garvey KC, et al. Type 1 diabetes in children and adolescents: a position statement by the American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care. 2018 Aug 9;41(9):2026-44.http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/41/9/2026.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30093549?tool=bestpractice.com[56]Riddell MC, Gallen IW, Smart CE, et al. Exercise management in type 1 diabetes: a consensus statement. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2017 May;5(5):377-90.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28126459?tool=bestpractice.com[57]Moser O, Riddell MC, Eckstein ML, et al. Glucose management for exercise using continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) and intermittently scanned CGM (isCGM) systems in type 1 diabetes: position statement of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD) and of the International Society for Pediatric and Adolescent Diabetes (ISPAD) endorsed by JDRF and supported by the American Diabetes Association (ADA). Diabetologia. 2020 Dec;63(12):2501-20.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00125-020-05263-9http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33047169?tool=bestpractice.com 请注意,在实践中,许多患者发现运动具有挑战性,尤其是在急性运动增加血糖异常风险的情况下。[57]Moser O, Riddell MC, Eckstein ML, et al. Glucose management for exercise using continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) and intermittently scanned CGM (isCGM) systems in type 1 diabetes: position statement of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD) and of the International Society for Pediatric and Adolescent Diabetes (ISPAD) endorsed by JDRF and supported by the American Diabetes Association (ADA). Diabetologia. 2020 Dec;63(12):2501-20.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00125-020-05263-9http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33047169?tool=bestpractice.com 因此,患者需要获得教育者的持续支持、教育和投入,以帮助其将运动融入日常生活。
对运动前碳水化合物摄入量和胰岛素剂量的有效调整可避免锻炼和运动时发生低血糖。[58]Aronson R, Brown RE, Li A, et al. Optimal insulin correction factor in post-high-intensity exercise hyperglycemia in adults with type 1 diabetes: the FIT Study. Diabetes Care. 2018 Nov 19;42(1):10-6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30455336?tool=bestpractice.com
低血糖可以发生在运动后长达 24 小时内,并且可能需要在计划运动的当日减少胰岛素剂量。如果患者血糖 < 5.0 mmol/L(< 90 mg/dL),应在开始运动前摄入一些提供碳水化合物的零食(10–20 g)。[57]Moser O, Riddell MC, Eckstein ML, et al. Glucose management for exercise using continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) and intermittently scanned CGM (isCGM) systems in type 1 diabetes: position statement of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD) and of the International Society for Pediatric and Adolescent Diabetes (ISPAD) endorsed by JDRF and supported by the American Diabetes Association (ADA). Diabetologia. 2020 Dec;63(12):2501-20.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00125-020-05263-9http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33047169?tool=bestpractice.com
在开始一项运动方案之前,需要评估如下内容:年龄、身体状况、血压、有无自主神经病变或者周围神经病变、增殖前或增殖性糖尿病性视网膜病变,或者黄斑水肿。有增殖期或者严重的增殖前期视网膜病变可能是剧烈运动的禁忌证。对于严重周围神经病变的患者,非负重运动可能可取。
对于存在以下情况的 1 型糖尿病患者,需警惕神经性贪食、神经性厌食和进食障碍的可能性:[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17
过度关注体形和体重
低 BMI
低血糖
整体血糖控制欠佳。
对于有进食障碍的 1 型糖尿病患者,考虑尽早(或如果需要,紧急)转诊至当地进食障碍服务机构。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17
启动胰岛素治疗
一旦诊断为1型糖尿病,就应开始强化胰岛素治疗。[59]Fullerton B, Jeitler K, Seitz M, et al. Intensive glucose control versus conventional glucose control for type 1 diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014 Feb 14;(2):CD009122.https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD009122.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24526393?tool=bestpractice.com 与使用非生理性胰岛素给药剂量的较老方案不同,基础胰岛素与餐时大剂量胰岛素的联合强化治疗旨在模拟胰岛素的生理性释放。可使用胰岛素泵持续输注和每日多次胰岛素注射(multiple daily injections, MDI)的方案进行强化治疗。[60]Misso ML, Egberts KJ, Page M, et al. Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (CSII) versus multiple insulin injections for type 1 diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010 Jan 20;(1):CD005103.https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD005103.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20091571?tool=bestpractice.com [ ]In people with type 1 diabetes mellitus, how does continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion compare with multiple insulin injections at improving outcomes?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.19/full展示答案 请参阅下文的方案章节。
胰岛素给药
成人的胰岛素初始每日总剂量为 0.2–0.4 U/kg。儿童的起始剂量为每日 0.5–1.0 U/kg,在青春期,剂量需求可加至每日 1.5 U/kg。1 型糖尿病患者刚开始使用胰岛素治疗时,经常会经历一个“蜜月期”,在此期间,他们每天需要的单位数可能会较少。通常情况下,总剂量的一半作为基础胰岛素给予,另一半作为餐时剂量给予。[45]American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care in diabetes - 2021. Diabetes Care. 2021;44(suppl 1):S1-S232.https://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/44/Supplement_1 餐时剂量分次给予,分别在各餐前给予。基础剂量给药时机根据个体患者需求和所用胰岛素类型而有所不同(例如,地特胰岛素通常根据患者需要每日给药一次或两次,甘精胰岛素和德谷胰岛素通常在一天中的任何时间每天给药一次,但最好在每天的同一时间给药)。给药时间可能会有所不同;查看您当地的指南,以获取更多信息。患者需要自我监测其血糖水平。在成人中,可每 2–3 天调整一次胰岛素剂量,以维持目标血糖值。鼓励每天注射多次胰岛素的儿童和青少年在每次血糖测量后酌情调整胰岛素剂量。[34]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes (type 1 and type 2) in children and young people: diagnosis and management. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng18
为了将 HbA1c 目标维持在 ≤48 mmol/mol(6.5%),建议患有 1 型糖尿病的成人参照以下目标:[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17
醒来时:空腹血糖水平 5-7 mmol/L(90-126 mg/dL)
餐前(在一天中的其他时间):血糖水平 4–7 mmol/L(72–126 mg/dL)
餐后:进餐后至少 90 分钟,血糖水平 5–9 mmol/L(90–162 mg/dL)
睡前:个体化血糖水平(考虑最后一餐的时间及其相关胰岛素剂量,与建议的睡醒时空腹血糖水平一致)。
对于 18 岁以下儿童和青少年患者,应参照以下目标:[34]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes (type 1 and type 2) in children and young people: diagnosis and management. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng18
睡醒时:空腹血糖水平 4–7 mmol/L(72–126 mg/dL)
餐前(在一天中的其他时间):血糖水平 4–7 mmol/L(72–126 mg/dL)
餐后:血糖水平 5-9 mmol/L(90-162 mg/dL)
如果患者需要驾驶,确保其了解当地关于血糖水平的建议。在英国,驾驶员和车辆许可发放机构(Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency, DVLA)建议驾驶前达到至少 5 mmol/L(90 mg/dL)的目标水平。[48]Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency. Guidance: Information for drivers with diabetes. March 2020 [internet publication].https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/information-for-drivers-with-diabetes
计算餐时胰岛素需求量的最简单方法是根据食物份量建议一系列对应剂量:例如小份食物用 4 U,中等份食物 6 U,大份食物 8 U等。因为食物中碳水化合物含量比较多变,可根据膳食中碳水化合物的估计量以及患者个体的胰岛素与碳水化合物比例来计算餐前胰岛素。在线结构化教育计划可以帮助患者掌握这些策略——请参阅下文的结构化教育章节。
查看当地规程,了解推荐的胰岛素与碳水化合物比例。对于英国大多数成人,建议从每 10 g 膳食碳水化合物 1 U 餐时胰岛素的比例开始,但在其他一些国家/地区,更保守的方法(例如,每 15 g 碳水化合物 1 U 胰岛素)更为常见。[61]Diabetes UK. An introduction to carbohydrate counting and insulin dose adjustment. 2011 [internet publication].https://cdn.shopify.com/s/files/1/1922/6045/files/A_Carbs-Count-2012-reducedsize_e0d41266-5921-48ba-9945-2f4053e89398.pdf 患者可以使用食品包装上列出的每份食物的碳水化合物含量来评估其预期膳食中的克数,但最好是在营养师的帮助下或通过结构化的糖尿病教育计划来计算碳水化合物克数。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17 可以根据饮食日记和餐后 2 小时血糖测量结果来调整胰岛素与碳水化合物的比例。可以根据餐前血糖水平,将校正(或调整)剂量添加到餐时胰岛素中。如果进餐量固定,还可以用患者的胰岛素每日总剂量(total daily dose, TDD)来计算校正剂量。可以将校正剂量添加到患者的餐时胰岛素需求量(基于一般食物份量或碳水化合物含量计算)中,作为总的餐时剂量给予。
方案
无论患者是成人还是儿童,从诊断开始都为其提供每日注射多次的基础-餐时胰岛素方案。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17[34]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes (type 1 and type 2) in children and young people: diagnosis and management. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng18对于新诊断出 1 型糖尿病的成人患者,请勿提供每日两次混合胰岛素、仅含基础胰岛素或仅含餐时胰岛素的治疗方案。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17
联合使用长效胰岛素(地特胰岛素、德谷胰岛素或甘精胰岛素)进行基础给药,使用速效胰岛素(赖脯胰岛素、门冬胰岛素或谷赖胰岛素)进行餐时给药,可以根据医生偏好和患者意愿设计 MDI 方案,并根据血糖监测数据进行调整。在英国,NICE 针对成人患者的建议如下:[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17
基础胰岛素治疗:
餐时给药:速效胰岛素类似物作为一线选择。
对于在血糖控制或减少并发症方面,胰岛素类似物是否优于传统胰岛素,目前尚无共识。[62]Laranjeira FO, de Andrade KR, Figueiredo AC, et al. Long-acting insulin analogues for type 1 diabetes: an overview of systematic reviews and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. PLoS One. 2018 Apr 12;13(4):e0194801.https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0194801http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29649221?tool=bestpractice.com[63]Fullerton B, Siebenhofer A, Jeitler K, et al. Short-acting insulin analogues versus regular human insulin for adults with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016 Jun 30;(6):CD012161.https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD012161/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27362975?tool=bestpractice.com [ ]How do short-acting insulin analogs compare with regular human insulin in adults with type 1 diabetes mellitus?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.1466/full展示答案
过去,很多患者使用每日两次的预混速效和中效胰岛素。如果患者无法通过每日注射多次胰岛素来进行安全自我管理,可以使用这一方案,但由于缺乏灵活性,已经不再推荐该方案作为一线治疗。
对于一些不适合每日注射多次方案或每日注射多次方案不成功的患者,可以考虑使用胰岛素泵(持续皮下胰岛素输注 [continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion, CSII])。在英国,NICE 的建议指出,对于以下人群,可选择使用胰岛素泵:[34]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes (type 1 and type 2) in children and young people: diagnosis and management. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng18[64]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion for the treatment of diabetes mellitus. Jul 2008 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ta151
胰岛素泵有一个皮下胰岛素输注端口,每 3 天更换一次。胰岛素泵使用短效胰岛素或速效胰岛素,提供基础速率输注和餐时胰岛素输注。然而,患者(或者父母或其照护者)仍需频繁测量血糖(在实践中,每天 4–7 次),以调整胰岛素泵,使其输送合适的剂量。胰岛素泵可以减少低血糖的发生,尤其是与动态血糖监测系统(continuous glucose monitoring, CGM)和阈值暂停功能结合使用时,还能改善 HbA1c 水平,同时提供更大的灵活性。[53]Ly TT, Nicholas JA, Retterath A, et al. Effect of sensor-augmented insulin pump therapy and automated insulin suspension vs standard insulin pump therapy on hypoglycemia in patients with type 1 diabetes: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2013 Sep 25;310(12):1240-7.http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/1741822http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24065010?tool=bestpractice.com[65]Benkhadra K, Alahdab F, Tamhane SU, et al. Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion versus multiple daily injections in individuals with type 1 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Endocrine. 2016 Aug 1;55(1):77-84.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27477293?tool=bestpractice.com[66]Monami M, Lamanna C, Marchionni N, et al. Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion versus multiple daily insulin injections in type 1 diabetes: a meta-analysis. Acta Diabetol. 2010 Dec;47(suppl 1):77-81.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19504039?tool=bestpractice.com[67]Li XL. Multiple daily injections versus insulin pump therapy in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus: a meta analysis. J Clin Rehabil Tissue Eng Res. 2010;14:8722-5.[68]Cummins E, Royle P, Snaith A, et al. Clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion for diabetes: systematic review and economic evaluation. Health Technol Assess. 2010 Feb;14(11):iii-iv;xi-xvi;1-181.http://www.journalslibrary.nihr.ac.uk/hta/volume-14/issue-11http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20223123?tool=bestpractice.com 由于需要进行监测和调整剂量,使用胰岛素泵需要熟练掌握糖尿病自我管理技能的积极主动患者,并且能联系接受过胰岛素泵治疗培训的执业医师。[69]Kordonouri O, Hartmann R, Danne T. Treatment of type 1 diabetes in children and adolescents using modern insulin pumps. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2011 Aug;93(suppl 1):S118-24.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21864743?tool=bestpractice.com[70]REPOSE Study Group. Relative effectiveness of insulin pump treatment over multiple daily injections and structured education during flexible intensive insulin treatment for type 1 diabetes: cluster randomised trial (REPOSE). BMJ. 2017 Mar 30;356:j1285.https://www.bmj.com/content/356/bmj.j1285.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28360027?tool=bestpractice.com 如果患者为儿童,他们将需要强有力的家庭支持。[69]Kordonouri O, Hartmann R, Danne T. Treatment of type 1 diabetes in children and adolescents using modern insulin pumps. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2011 Aug;93(suppl 1):S118-24.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21864743?tool=bestpractice.com
带有葡萄糖传感器并被整合成一个装置的胰岛素泵被称为传感器增强型胰岛素泵。已将传感器和胰岛素泵的功能整合到一个可用装置中:“闭环式”系统。可根据感测的葡萄糖浓度自动判定基础胰岛素给药。整合装置使用计算机控制算法建立混合闭环式胰岛素给药系统,起到人工胰腺的作用。[39]Chiang JL, Maahs DM, Garvey KC, et al. Type 1 diabetes in children and adolescents: a position statement by the American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care. 2018 Aug 9;41(9):2026-44.http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/41/9/2026.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30093549?tool=bestpractice.com[71]Weisman A, Bai JW, Cardinez M, et al. Effect of artificial pancreas systems on glycaemic control in patients with type 1 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of outpatient randomised controlled trials. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2017 May 19;5(7):501-12.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28533136?tool=bestpractice.com[72]Thabit H, Hovorka R. Coming of age: the artificial pancreas for type 1 diabetes. Diabetologia. 2016 Sep;59(9):1795-805.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00125-016-4022-4http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27364997?tool=bestpractice.com 在临床试验中,已经证明此系统能降低夜间低血糖发生风险并改善血糖控制情况,包括儿童。[73]Phillip M, Battelino T, Atlas E, et al. Nocturnal glucose control with an artificial pancreas at a diabetes camp. N Engl J Med. 2013 Feb 28;368(9):824-33.https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1206881http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23445093?tool=bestpractice.com[74]Bergenstal RM, Tamborlane WV, Ahmann A, et al. Effectiveness of sensor-augmented insulin-pump therapy in type 1 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2010 Jul 22;363(4):311-20.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1002853#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20587585?tool=bestpractice.com[75]Brown SA, Kovatchev BP, Raghinaru D, et al. Six-month randomized, multicenter trial of closed-loop control in type 1 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2019 Oct 31;381(18):1707-17.https://www.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1907863http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31618560?tool=bestpractice.com有些型号配有智能手机应用程序,可用于监测血糖水平和胰岛素给药剂量。传感器和传感器增强型泵的使用越来越多。
提醒患者在同一身体区域内轮换注射部位。英国药品和医疗产品监管署(Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency, MHRA)建议,这样做是为了防止或减少注射部位发生皮肤淀粉样变性(胰岛素脂肪营养不良)的风险,皮肤淀粉样变性可能会导致糖尿病控制不佳,因为淀粉样物质可导致胰岛素吸收不足。[76]Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency. Insulins (all types): risk of cutaneous amyloidosis at injection site. Sep 2020 [internet publication].https://www.gov.uk/drug-safety-update/insulins-all-types-risk-of-cutaneous-amyloidosis-at-injection-site
不应从胰岛素笔装置或卡式瓶中取出胰岛素。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17 英格兰 NHS 发出警示称,胰岛素笔装置中胰岛素的强度可能会以 100 单位/mL 的倍数变化,而胰岛素注射器的刻度仅适用于计算标准 100 单位/mL 的剂量。如果从胰岛素笔装置或卡式瓶中提取的胰岛素强度高于预期,而在确定所需量时未考虑到这一点,则可能导致严重且可能致死的过量使用。[77]NHS England. Patent safety alert: Risk of severe harm and death due to withdrawing insulin from pen devices. Dec 2019 [internet publication].https://www.england.nhs.uk/publication/patent-safety-alert-risk-severe-harm-and-death-withdrawing-insulin-pen-devices/
通过以下方式确保将胰岛素错误用药风险降至最低:
技术进展
管理 1 型糖尿病的技术已经取得重大进展。不断发展的技术为支持血糖管理、减少并发症以及减轻低血糖的负担和风险提供了可能性,同时还能改善患者生活质量。[79]Diabetes UK. Type 1 diabetes technology: a consensus guideline. 2019 [internet publication].https://www.diabetes.org.uk/professionals/position-statements-reports/specialist-care-for-children-and-adults-and-complications/type-1-technology-guidelines
除了胰岛素泵治疗和实时 CGM,间歇性扫描 CGM(瞬感血糖监测)的出现使患者能够轻松获取有关其血糖水平的详细数据,包括变化的方向和速率。[79]Diabetes UK. Type 1 diabetes technology: a consensus guideline. 2019 [internet publication].https://www.diabetes.org.uk/professionals/position-statements-reports/specialist-care-for-children-and-adults-and-complications/type-1-technology-guidelines 瞬感血糖监测是指患者通过使用扫描器或智能手机应用程序间歇性扫描皮下传感器来间歇性检测血糖水平,目前在许多国家可用,适用于符合特定区域标准的 1 型糖尿病患者。在英国,依照英格兰 NHS 标准,估计包括多达 20% 的 1 型糖尿病患者,涵盖多个患者群体,包括所有需要每天监测血糖 > 8 次或有失能性低血糖发作的患者。[80]NHS England. Flash glucose monitoring: national arrangements for funding of relevant diabetes patients. Nov 2020 [internet publication].https://www.england.nhs.uk/publication/flash-glucose-monitoring-national-arrangements-for-funding-of-relevant-diabetes-patients/
结构化教育
经认证的在线结构化教育计划通过向患者提供远程支持,作为对日常就诊的补充,能进一步增强糖尿病患者管理自身疾病的能力。[81]NHS England. NHS launches new online support for people with diabetes. Jun 2020 [internet publication].https://www.england.nhs.uk/2020/06/nhs-launches-new-online-support-for-people-with-diabetes/
在英国,NICE 建议在诊断后 6-12 个月内为所有 1 型糖尿病成人患者提供循证结构化教育计划。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17
从诊断时开始,为儿童和青少年以及其家庭成员提供适合其年龄和成熟度的继续教育计划。[34]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes (type 1 and type 2) in children and young people: diagnosis and management. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng18
低血糖感知能力
低血糖是胰岛素治疗中最常见也是最严重的副作用。可导致生活质量下降;严重低血糖是一种医学急症,可导致意识模糊、癫痫发作和昏迷。严重低血糖的定义为导致认知损害、需要他人协助才能恢复的低血糖水平。在每次年度评估中评估患者的低血糖感知能力。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17对于成人患者,使用 Gold 评分或 Clarke 评分。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17
低血糖的发作频率因人而异。患者如果担心夜间低血糖,可加测凌晨 3 点的血糖。为了管理夜间低血糖(有症状或在监测时发现),应查看患者对低血糖的了解和自我管理技能、目前的胰岛素治疗方案、晚间饮食习惯和既往体力活动。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17选择一种不太可能在夜间引起低血糖的胰岛素类型和方案。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17 睡前加餐并不总是降低夜间低血糖风险的有效方法。[82]Desjardins K, Brazeau AS, Strychar I, et al. Are bedtime nutritional strategies effective in preventing nocturnal hypoglycaemia in patients with type 1 diabetes? Diabetes Obes Metab. 2014 Jul;16(7):577-87.https://dom-pubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/dom.12232http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24320159?tool=bestpractice.com 然而,如果患者在下午或晚上运动,则建议给予不使用胰岛素的睡前加餐(或夜间基础胰岛素减少 20%)。[56]Riddell MC, Gallen IW, Smart CE, et al. Exercise management in type 1 diabetes: a consensus statement. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2017 May;5(5):377-90.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28126459?tool=bestpractice.com 对于住院患者而言,睡前加餐也可能是一种合适的方法。
饮酒可能会导致急性低血糖,但是饮酒和运动都可能导致迟发性低血糖(最长可延迟 24 小时)。
与患者一起努力,以确定诱发因素以及患者识别和妥善处理低血糖的能力。告知患者(或父母/照护者),总是能够立即获得速效葡萄糖来源和血糖监测设备很重要,以便能对低血糖症状或体征作出快速反应。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17[34]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes (type 1 and type 2) in children and young people: diagnosis and management. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng18培训患者的家人、朋友和/或照护者(视情况而定)让其具备相应能力,从而能够在紧急情况下对严重低血糖患者进行胰高血糖素肌内注射。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17[34]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes (type 1 and type 2) in children and young people: diagnosis and management. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng18
对于儿童和青少年的轻中度低血糖,立即使用口服速效葡萄糖(例如,10–20 g)治疗(液态碳水化合物可能比固态更容易吞咽)。因为低血糖可引起呕吐,所以可能需要频繁地少量给予速效葡萄糖。[34]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes (type 1 and type 2) in children and young people: diagnosis and management. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng18在 15 分钟内复查患者血糖水平(使用速效葡萄糖后,血糖水平应在 5–15 分钟内升高),若仍有低血糖,则给予更多速效葡萄糖。[34]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes (type 1 and type 2) in children and young people: diagnosis and management. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng18 随着患者症状改善或血糖水平恢复正常,给予口服复合长效碳水化合物,以维持血糖水平,除非儿童或青少年即将吃零食或进餐,或者正在接受持续皮下胰岛素输注。[34]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes (type 1 and type 2) in children and young people: diagnosis and management. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng18
对于住院的 1 型糖尿病儿童和青少年患者的严重低血糖,如果可以快速静脉注射,则静脉注射 10% 的葡萄糖。对于 1 型糖尿病儿童和青少年患者的严重低血糖,如果此患者未住院或者无法进行快速静脉注射,则采用肌内注射胰高血糖素或口服浓缩葡萄糖溶液进行治疗。[34]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes (type 1 and type 2) in children and young people: diagnosis and management. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng18 如果患者意识模糊,请勿使用口服葡萄糖溶液,因为这可能很危险。[34]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes (type 1 and type 2) in children and young people: diagnosis and management. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng18如果患者的血糖水平没有反应或症状持续超过 10 分钟,应寻求上级援助。[34]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes (type 1 and type 2) in children and young people: diagnosis and management. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng18 随着症状改善或血糖水平恢复正常,一旦儿童或青少年足够清醒,就给予口服复合长效碳水化合物,以维持正常血糖水平。对于严重低血糖发作后有持续意识模糊的儿童和青少年,应反复检查血糖,以确定是否需要进一步补充葡萄糖。[34]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes (type 1 and type 2) in children and young people: diagnosis and management. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng18
如果患者为成人且能够经口进食,则可使用速效葡糖治疗低血糖。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17如果由于意识水平下降而无法经口摄入,则需要使用胰高血糖素。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17 这可通过肌内注射(由已了解如何操作的家人或朋友)或静脉注射(由擅长静脉注射的医疗卫生专业人士)进行。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17 应在 10 分钟时监测患者的反应,如果意识水平无显著改善,则应静脉给予葡萄糖。一旦患者能安全口服碳水化合物,就可给予口服碳水化合物。由已被告知复发风险的人员继续观察患者。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17
如果低血糖变得异常或频繁发作,应审查可能的原因,包括:不适当的胰岛素治疗方案(不正确的剂量分配和胰岛素类型);进食和活动情况,包括酒精;注射技术和技巧,包括必要时重新摇匀胰岛素;注射部位问题;可能的器质性原因(包括胃轻瘫);胰岛素敏感性改变(包括影响肾素-血管紧张素系统的药物和肾衰竭);心理问题;既往体力活动;缺乏适当的自我管理知识和技能。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17 如果患有 1 型糖尿病的儿童和青少年出现频繁低血糖或反复癫痫发作,则应考虑将其转诊进行认知功能评估。[34]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes (type 1 and type 2) in children and young people: diagnosis and management. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng18
若未达到目标
如果根据 HbA1c 或低血糖发作情况进行评估,判定血糖水平不合适,则应重新审查患者的饮食、运动和胰岛素治疗方案。儿童和青少年可能有饮食不规律或爱吃零食的习惯。考虑不依从治疗的可能性(特别是对于青少年患者)。[34]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes (type 1 and type 2) in children and young people: diagnosis and management. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng18 请谨记,由于心理和社会挑战,糖尿病患者可能难以有效管理其糖尿病;这些患者将需要综合的多学科方法,需要有心理学家、精神科医生和支持工作者参与。[83]Doherty AM, Gayle C, Morgan-Jones R, et al. Improving quality of diabetes care by integrating psychological and social care for poorly controlled diabetes: 3 Dimensions of Care for Diabetes. Int J Psychiatry Med. 2016;51(1):3-15.https://www.doi.org/10.1177/0091217415621040http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26681232?tool=bestpractice.com特别要考虑进食障碍以及对体形和体重的担忧是否会影响患者如何使用胰岛素。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17
咨询营养师是治疗方案中非常重要的一部分,因为患者能学习如何计算碳水化合物和调整餐前胰岛素,以便能灵活地调节膳食成分和活动。持续空腹或夜间高血糖提示可能需要增加基础胰岛素剂量。餐前和餐后高血糖可能由最近一餐的胰岛素剂量不足导致,通过考虑膳食中的碳水化合物含量、患者对其碳水化合物摄入量的评估以及随后的餐前胰岛素剂量和给药时机(餐前 15 分钟左右较为理想),能解决这一问题。
其他导致血糖波动的因素包括乳糜泻、甲状腺疾病、Addison病和社会心理应激等。在诊断及常规检查时就应该对乳糜泻、甲状腺疾病和社会心理应激进行筛查;对于Addison病和恶性贫血,应在临床可疑时筛查。
成人患者的胰岛素辅助治疗
若成人患者体重指数(body mass index, BMI)为 25 kg/m² 或更高(南亚人及相关少数族裔:23 kg/m² 或更高),并且希望在尽量减少有效胰岛素剂量的同时改善血糖控制,那么可考虑在胰岛素治疗的基础上加用二甲双胍。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17 然而,关于这种方案的益处,仍然存在争议。[84]What role for metformin in type 1 diabetes? Drug Ther Bull. 2018 Jul;56(7):78-80.https://www.doi.org/10.1136/dtb.2018.7.0645http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30008442?tool=bestpractice.com[85]Petrie JR, Chaturvedi N, Ford I, et al; REMOVAL Study Group. Cardiovascular and metabolic effects of metformin in patients with type 1 diabetes (REMOVAL): a double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2017 Aug;5(8):597-609.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5641446/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28615149?tool=bestpractice.com
需注意,部分 1 型糖尿病患者可能会服用达格列净作为胰岛素辅助用药,该治疗方法之前曾受到英国 NICE 推荐用于某些患者。然而,2021 年 10 月制药商自愿撤除了达格列净的该适应症后,其在英国或欧洲即不再获批用于 1 型糖尿病治疗,不可用于该患者群体。英国药品和医疗产品监管署(Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency, MHRA)和欧洲药品管理局建议,若您的患者已开始服用达格列净:[86]Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency. Dapagliflozin (Forxiga): no longer authorised for treatment of type 1 diabetes mellitus. Dec 2021 [internet publication].https://www.gov.uk/drug-safety-update/dapagliflozin-forxiga-no-longer-authorised-for-treatment-of-type-1-diabetes-mellitus[87]European Medicines Agency. Forxiga (dapagliflozin) 5mg should no longer be used for the treatment of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus. Nov 2021 [internet publication].https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/dhpc/forxiga-dapagliflozin-5mg-should-no-longer-be-used-treatment-type-1-diabetes-mellitus
MHRA 亦指出,由于达格列净具有利尿作用,因此停药后血压可能略有升高。
撤除该适应症并非出于任何新发安全问题,达格列净的其他适应症保持不变。其他用于降低 1 型糖尿病患者糖尿病酮症酸中毒风险的风险最小化措施不再能够得以应用。[86]Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency. Dapagliflozin (Forxiga): no longer authorised for treatment of type 1 diabetes mellitus. Dec 2021 [internet publication].https://www.gov.uk/drug-safety-update/dapagliflozin-forxiga-no-longer-authorised-for-treatment-of-type-1-diabetes-mellitus
计划妊娠
糖尿病妇女分娩的婴儿有更高的患有先天畸形的风险;[88]McCance DR, Casey C. Type 1 Diabetes in Pregnancy. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2019 Sep;48(3):495-509.https://www.clinicalkey.com/#!/content/playContent/1-s2.0-S0889852919300374http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31345519?tool=bestpractice.com 孕前管理糖尿病可以减低这些风险。[89]Feldman AZ, Brown FM. Management of Type 1 Diabetes in Pregnancy. Curr Diab Rep. 2016 Aug;16(8):76.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11892-016-0765-zhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27337958?tool=bestpractice.com 因而,孕前咨询应被纳入所有可能妊娠的糖尿病女性患者的常规糖尿病门诊诊疗中。[90]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes in pregnancy: management from preconception to the postnatal period. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng3 妊娠早期高血糖与先天性异常的风险增加相关,而妊娠中期和晚期高血糖与胎儿生长加速、早产和新生儿并发症相关。[91]Association of British Clinical Diabetologists. Using diabetes technology in pregnancy. Mar 2020 [internet publication].https://abcd.care/dtn/best-practice-guides
1 型糖尿病女性患者应该在准备受孕前有效避孕。[90]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes in pregnancy: management from preconception to the postnatal period. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng3
英国国家卫生与临床优化研究所(National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, NICE)建议,如果能够在不引起问题性低血糖的情况下达到 HbA1c <48 mmol/mol(6.5%),则应在受孕前达到这一水平。[90]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes in pregnancy: management from preconception to the postnatal period. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng3朝着这个目标的任何程度下降都有可能降低先天性畸形的发生风险。NICE 建议计划妊娠的女性糖尿病患者最多每月测量一次 HbA1c 水平。[90]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes in pregnancy: management from preconception to the postnatal period. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng3
女性糖尿病患者应在孕前接受视网膜病变、肾病、神经病变和心血管疾病的评估,因为上述疾病在孕期可能加重或者使妊娠情况复杂化。[90]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes in pregnancy: management from preconception to the postnatal period. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng3 除上述并发症外,高血糖性糖尿病母亲所产婴儿为巨大儿和发生新生儿窘迫的风险较高。子痫前期在糖尿病患者妊娠期更常见。正常或者接近正常的血糖能降低并发症的发生风险。
应在妊娠前(或确认妊娠后尽快)停止使用他汀类药物、ACE 抑制剂和血管紧张素 II 受体阻滞剂。[90]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes in pregnancy: management from preconception to the postnatal period. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng3
建议计划妊娠的女性糖尿病患者服用叶酸(并持续服用至妊娠 12 周)。[90]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes in pregnancy: management from preconception to the postnatal period. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng3
妊娠期间
在妊娠期间,患有糖尿病的孕妇应由多学科管理团队进行管理,包括营养师、宣教护士、内分泌科医师和妇产科医师。
应在妊娠前或确认妊娠后尽快停止使用他汀类药物、ACE 抑制剂和血管紧张素 II 受体拮抗剂(替换为适合在妊娠期间使用的其他降压药)。[90]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes in pregnancy: management from preconception to the postnatal period. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng3
在第一次预约的产前门诊后,通过数字成像和使用托吡卡胺进行瞳孔散大,为患有糖尿病的孕妇提供视网膜评估(除非其在过去 3 个月内曾接受过视网膜评估),并在 28 周时再次进行评估。如果预约的检查发现有任何糖尿病视网膜病变,则在 16-20 周时进行一次额外的视网膜评估。[90]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes in pregnancy: management from preconception to the postnatal period. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng3
建议患有糖尿病的孕妇服用叶酸,直至妊娠 12 周。[90]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes in pregnancy: management from preconception to the postnatal period. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng3
糖尿病女性生的婴儿患神经管缺陷的风险高于一般人群。[92]Tinker SC, Gilboa SM, Moore CA, et al. Specific birth defects in pregnancies of women with diabetes: National Birth Defects Prevention Study, 1997-2011. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2020 Feb;222(2):176.e1-176.https://www.clinicalkey.com/#!/content/playContent/1-s2.0-S0002937819310300http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31454511?tool=bestpractice.com
使用每日注射多次(multiple daily injection, MDI)方案或胰岛素泵进行强化胰岛素治疗很重要。妊娠期间常用的胰岛素包括等向胰岛素(NPH)、地特胰岛素、中性胰岛素、赖脯胰岛素和门冬胰岛素。[93]Mathiesen ER, Hod M, Ivanisevic M, et al; Detemir in Pregnancy Study Group. Maternal efficacy and safety outcomes in a randomized, controlled trial comparing insulin detemir with NPH insulin in 310 pregnant women with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2012 Oct;35(10):2012-7.http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/35/10/2012.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22851598?tool=bestpractice.com关于 1 型糖尿病孕妇的持续血糖监测的试验(Continuous Glucose Monitoring in Women With Type 1 Diabetes in Pregnancy Trial, CONCEPTT)表明,对于 1 型糖尿病女性,在妊娠期间,与仅使用自我血糖监测(self-monitoring of blood glucose, SMBG)相比,使用实时(real-time, RT)CGM 与血糖控制和新生儿结局改善有关。[94]Feig DS, Donovan LE, Corcoy R, et al; CONCEPTT Collaborative Group. Continuous glucose monitoring in pregnant women with type 1 diabetes (CONCEPTT): a multicentre international randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2017 Nov 25;390(10110):2347-59. [Erratum in: Lancet. 2017 Nov 25;390(10110):2346.]https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(17)32400-5/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28923465?tool=bestpractice.com在英国,NICE 建议向所有患有 1 型糖尿病的孕妇提供 CGM。对于所有明确表达希望使用瞬感血糖监测和/或不能使用 CGM 的女性,可提供瞬感血糖监测。[90]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes in pregnancy: management from preconception to the postnatal period. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng3[95]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes in pregnancy: management from preconception to the postnatal period [A] Continuous glucose monitoring NICE guideline NG3 Methods, evidence and recommendations. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng3/evidence/a-evidence-reviews-for-continuous-glucose-monitoring-pdf-8955770797英国临床糖尿病专家协会(Association of British Clinical Diabetologists)发布了妊娠期糖尿病技术应用指南。[91]Association of British Clinical Diabetologists. Using diabetes technology in pregnancy. Mar 2020 [internet publication].https://abcd.care/dtn/best-practice-guides
NICE 建议所有病因糖尿病患者在妊娠期间首选等向胰岛素作为长效胰岛素。[90]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes in pregnancy: management from preconception to the postnatal period. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng3 在实践中,对于已经建立基础-餐时胰岛素常规且在妊娠前使用长效胰岛素类似物(如地特胰岛素或甘精胰岛素)已实现良好血糖控制的 1 型糖尿病女性患者,在妊娠期间继续使用此方案可能更合适。尚无大型随机对照研究支持在糖尿病妊娠患者中使用甘精胰岛素的安全性。[96]Lv S, Wang J, Xu Y. Safety of insulin analogs during pregnancy: a meta-analysis. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2015 Oct;292(4):749-56.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00404-015-3692-3http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25855052?tool=bestpractice.com不过,甘精胰岛素已在妊娠期被安全地用于许多患者。有限的证据表明,与常规人胰岛素相比,速效胰岛素类似物(门冬胰岛素或赖脯胰岛素)可能与低血糖风险降低和血糖控制改善相关。[90]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes in pregnancy: management from preconception to the postnatal period. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng3 在糖尿病孕妇中比较胰岛素泵治疗(持续皮下胰岛素输注 [CSII])与每日注射多次胰岛素结局的数据很少。[97]Farrar D, Tuffnell DJ, West J, et al. Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion versus multiple daily injections of insulin for pregnant women with diabetes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016;(6):CD005542.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD005542.pub3/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27272351?tool=bestpractice.com [ ]Is there randomized controlled trial evidence to support the use of continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion instead of multiple daily injections of insulin in pregnant women with diabetes?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.1386/full展示答案一项随机对照试验表明,与使用胰岛素泵治疗的患者相比,使用每日多次注射治疗患者的血糖控制结局更佳。[98]Feig DS, Corcoy R, Donovan LE, et al. Pumps or multiple daily injections in pregnancy involving type 1 diabetes: a prespecified analysis of the CONCEPTT randomized trial. Diabetes Care. 2018 Oct 16;41(12):2471-9.http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/41/12/2471.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30327362?tool=bestpractice.com
在妊娠期间(和孕前阶段),当改善血糖控制带来的可能益处大于潜在危害时,可考虑在胰岛素治疗的基础上加用二甲双胍。[90]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes in pregnancy: management from preconception to the postnatal period. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng3 在除胰岛素缺乏外还存在胰岛素抵抗的女性中,最可能出现这种情况,如果女性体重指数(body mass index, BMI)为 25 kg/m² 或更高(南亚人及相关少数民族:23 kg/m² 或更高),并且希望在尽量减少有效胰岛素剂量的同时改善血糖控制,那么建议考虑采用这种方案。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17
NICE 指南建议患有 1 型糖尿病的孕妇达到以下血糖目标(只要能在不引问题性低血糖的情况下,达到这些目标):[90]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes in pregnancy: management from preconception to the postnatal period. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng3
空腹时:< 5.3 mmol/L(< 95.4 mg/dL),且
餐后 1 小时:< 7.8 mmol/L(< 140.4 mg/dL),或
餐后 2 小时:<6.4 mmol/L(< 115.2 mg/dL)。
建议使用胰岛素的糖尿病孕妇将其毛细血管血糖水平维持在 4 mmol/L(72 mg/dL)以上。[90]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes in pregnancy: management from preconception to the postnatal period. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng3
在预约就诊时测量所有患有糖尿病孕妇的 HbA1c 水平,以确定妊娠风险水平。考虑在妊娠中期和晚期测量患有糖尿病孕妇的 HbA1c 水平,以评估妊娠风险水平。[90]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes in pregnancy: management from preconception to the postnatal period. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng3
孕妇应每天检测其空腹、餐前、餐后 1 小时及睡前血糖水平。[90]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes in pregnancy: management from preconception to the postnatal period. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng3在妊娠早期每隔数周监测一次患者情况,以便对营养成分和摄入时间、运动情况和胰岛素剂量进行调整,从而达到最佳血糖控制。胰岛素需求量通常在妊娠早期增加;然后在妊娠约 8 周至 16 周减少,之后再次增加,直到妊娠结束。
建议患有 1 型糖尿病的孕妇从 12 周开始服用阿司匹林,直至婴儿出生。[90]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes in pregnancy: management from preconception to the postnatal period. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng3[99]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Hypertension in pregnancy: diagnosis and management. June 2019 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng133
对所有患者的持续监测和支持
1 型糖尿病患者的治疗还涉及合并症(例如自身免疫性疾病)的管理、监测(包括定期眼科检查)、血脂异常的治疗和血压控制。对于 1 型糖尿病成人患者,建议血压管理水平为 135/85 mmHg。如果患者有白蛋白尿或者两种或两种以上代谢综合征特征,建议血压管理水平为 130/80 mmHg。[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17 足部护理也是病情管理的一个重要组成部分。[45]American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care in diabetes - 2021. Diabetes Care. 2021;44(suppl 1):S1-S232.https://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/44/Supplement_1[36]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Jul 2021 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17[34]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes (type 1 and type 2) in children and young people: diagnosis and management. Dec 2020 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng18请参阅监测章节。
社会心理的筛查和支持可以帮助减轻抑郁,增加患者和家庭自我管理的能力。[100]Sturt J, Dennick K, Due-Christensen M, McCarthy K. The detection and management of diabetes distress in people with type 1 diabetes. Curr Diab Rep. 2015 Nov;15(11):101.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11892-015-0660-zhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26411924?tool=bestpractice.com[101]Rey Velasco E, Pals RAS, Skinner TC, Grabowski D. Pre-empting the challenges faced in adolescence: A systematic literature review of effects of psychosocial interventions for preteens with type 1 diabetes. Endocrinol Diabetes Metab. 2020 Mar 3;3(2):e00120.https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/edm2.120http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32318638?tool=bestpractice.com[102]Kodama S, Morikawa S, Horikawa C, et al. Effect of family-oriented diabetes programs on glycemic control: A meta-analysis. Fam Pract. 2019 Jul 31;36(4):387-94.https://academic.oup.com/fampra/article/36/4/387/5174885http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30423118?tool=bestpractice.com